Too Much of Everything Is Bad: The Case of Czech University Students’ Work-Study Balance During the Covid-19 Pandemic
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2025.180205Keywords:
role overload, role enrichment, CES-D 8, covid-19, work, study, university studentsAbstract
Students are an exceptionally vulnerable population in comparison to any other age group. Many students face considerable stress stemming from the combined demands of their studies and, for some, the necessity to work. This situation presents a serious dilemma of how to combine work and study how to maintain mental well-being. We explored the work-study balance by analyzing a repeated cross-sectional sample of 8,584 Czech university students at two time points (2020 and 2021) during the pandemic outbreak. Employment benefits students’ mental health, but students who worked extra hours had more depressive symptoms than those who worked part-time or full-time. In addition, an increasing study load had a negative effect on students in the form of increased depressive symptoms. Both students who were employed before the pandemic but were no longer working during it and students who never had a job had significantly higher depressive symptoms than working students. The expectation of a detrimental high workload-high study load effect was not confirmed.
References
Agrawal, R.K. and Chahar, S.S. (2007) ‘Examining role stress among technical students in India’, Social Psychology of Education, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-006-9010-y
Arnett, J.J. (2007) ‘Emerging Adulthood: What Is It, and What Is It Good For?’, Child Development Perspectives, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 68–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x
Barros, C., Sacau-Fontenla, A. and Fonte, C. (2022) ‘Anxiety, depression and stress among university students: the mediator role of work in time of COVID-19’, in Arezes, P.M., Baptista, J.S., Carneiro, P., Castelo Branco, J., Costa, N., Duarte, J., Guedes, J.C., Silva, L.C., Sousa, P. and Viana, S.I. (ed.) Occupational and environmental safety and health III., Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Birmingham, W.C., Wadsworth, L.L., Lassetter, J.H., Graff, T.C., Lauren, E. and Hung, M. (2021) ‘COVID-19 lockdown: Impact on college students’ lives’, Journal of American College Health, Vol. 71, No. 3, pp. 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2021.1909041
Blom, M., Georgiades, A., László, K.D., Alinaghizadeh, H., Janszky, I. and Ahnve, S. (2007) ‘Work and marital status in relation to depressive symptoms and social support among women with coronary artery disease’, Journal of Women’s Health, Vol. 16, No. 9, pp. 1305–1316. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2006.0191
Buda, R. and Lenaghan, J.A. (2005) ‘Engagement in multiple roles: an investigation of the student-work relationship’, Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 211–224. https://doi.org/10.21818/001c.14554
Butler, A.B. (2007) ‘Job characteristics and college performance and attitudes: A model of work-school conflict and facilitation’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 92, No. 2, pp. 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.92.2.500
Carlson, D.S., Kacmar, K.M., Holliday, J. and Grzywacz, J.G. (2006) ‘Measuring the positive side of the work – family interface: Development and validation of a work – family enrichment scale’, Vol. 68, pp. 131–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.02.002
Choi, E., Choi, K.W., Jeong, H.G., Lee, M.S., Ko, Y.H., Han, C., Ham, B.J., Chang, J. and Han, K.M. (2021) ‘Long working hours and depressive symptoms: moderation by gender, income, and job status’, Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol. 286, pp. 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.03.001
Cook, H. (2015). Role overload and prescription stimulant use among college students. Butler Journal of Undergraduate Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 22–36. Retrieved from: https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=bjur
Creed, P.A., French, J. and Hood, M. (2015) ‘Working while studying at university: The relationship between work benefits and demands and engagement and well-being’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 86, pp. 48–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.11.002
Curtis, S. and Shani, N. (2002) ‘The effect of taking paid employment during term-time on students’ academic studies’, Journal of Further and Higher Education, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098770220129406
Dahlin, M., Joneborg, N. and Runeson, B. (2005) ‘Stress and depression among medical students: A cross-sectional study’, Medical Education, Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 594–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02176.x
Deng, Y., Cherian, J., Khan, N.U.N., Kumari, K., Sial, M.S., Comite, U., Gavurova, B., Wang, S. and Wu, J. (2022) ‘Family and academic stress and their impact on students’ depression level and academic performance’, Frontiers in Psychiatry, Vol. 13, pp. 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.869337
Derous, E. and Ryan, A.M. (2008) ‘When earning is beneficial for learning: The relation of employment and leisure activities to academic outcomes’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 73, No. 1, pp. 118–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.02.003
Elling, S.R. and Elling, T.W. (2000) ‘The Influence of Work on College Student Development’, NASPA Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 454–470. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.1108
Fischer, J. and Vltavská, K. (2016) EUROSTUDENT VI: Základní výsledky šetření postojů a životních podmínek studentů vysokých škol v České republice. Praha: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. Available at: https://msmt.gov.cz/uploads/odbor_30/TF/Analyticke_materialy/Eurostudent/E_VI_zaverecna_zprava.pdf (Accessed: 19 March 2025).
Flint, E., Bartley, M., Shelton, N. and Sacker, A. (2013) ‘Do labour market status transitions predict changes in psychological well-being?’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Vol. 67, No. 9, pp. 796–802. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2013-202425
Fortune, M.F., Spielman, M. and Pangelinan, D.T. (2011) ‘Students’ Perceptions of Online or Face-to-Face Learning and Social Media in Hospitality, Recreation and Tourism’, MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1–16. Retrieved from: https://jolt.merlot.org/vol7no1/fortune_0311.pdf
Greenhaus, J.H. and Powell, G.N. (2006) ‘When work and family are allies: a theory of work-family enrichment’, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 72–92. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2006.19379625
Hall, D.T. (1972) ‘A Model of Coping with Role Conflict: The Role Behavior of College Educated Women’, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 471. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393827
Hauschildt, K., Gwosć, C., Schirmer, H. and Cras, F. (2019) The social dimension of student life in the European higher education area in 2019. Hanover: Eurostudent. Available at: https://www.eurostudent.eu/download_files/documents/Eurostudent_brochure_WEB.pdf (Accessed: 19 March 2025).
Hauschildt, K., Gwosć, C., Schirmer, H. and Wartenbergh-Cras, F. (2021) Social and economic conditions of student life in Europe: EUROSTUDENT VII synopsis of indicators 2018–2021. Hanover: Eurostudent. Available at: https://www.eurostudent.eu/download_files/documents/EUROSTUDENT_VII_Synopsis_of_Indicators.pdf (Accessed: 19 March 2025).
Hecht, L.M. (2001) ‘Role conflict and role overload: Different concepts, different consequences’, Sociological Inquiry, Vol. 71, No. 1, pp. 111–121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2001.tb00930.x
Hornung, S., Rousseau, D.M. and Glaser, J. (2008) ‘Creating Flexible Work Arrangements Through Idiosyncratic Deals’, Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 93, No. 3, pp. 655–664. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.655
Huijts, T., Kraaykamp, G. and Subramanian, S. V. (2013) ‘Childlessness and psychological well-being in context: A multilevel study on 24 European Countries’, European Sociological Review, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 32–47. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcr037
Jogaratnam, G. and Buchanan, P. (2004) ‘Balancing the demands of school and work: Stress and employed hospitality students’, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 237–245. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110410537397
Kanojiya, A.R. (2020) ‘The Impact of Online Learning during Covid-19 Pandemic: Students Perspective Maharashtra, India’, International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, Vol. 8, No. 11, pp. 686–690. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2020.32277
Karim, J., Weisz, R., Bibi, Z. and ur Rehman, S. (2015) ‘Validation of the Eight-Item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) Among Older Adults’, Current Psychology, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 681–692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-014-9281-y
Kartalova-O’Doherty, Y. and Tedstone Doherty, D. (2010) ‘Recovering from recurrent mental health problems: Giving up and fighting to get better’, International Journal of Mental Health Nursing, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0349.2009.00636.x
King, T. and Bannon, E. (2002) At what cost? The price that working students pay for a college education. Washington, DC: U.S. Public Interest Research Group. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED470026).
Klusáček, J., Kudrnáčová, M. and Soukup, P. (2022) ‘Validation of Ces-D8 Among Czech University Students During Covid-19 Pandemic’, Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, Vol. 66, No. 4, pp. 398–415. https://doi.org/10.51561/cspsych.66.4.398
Kumar, H. (2016) ‘Psychological Distress and Life Satisfaction among University Students’, Journal of Psychology & Clinical Psychiatry, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.15406/jpcpy.2016.05.00283
Kurre, J., Scholl, J., Bullinger, M. and Petersen-Ewert, C. (2011) ‘Integration and health-related quality of life of undergraduate medical students with migration backgrounds - Results of a survey’, Psycho-Social Medicine, Vol. 8, pp. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3205/psm000076
Lammers, W.J., Onweugbuzie, A.J. and Slate, J.R. (2001) ‘Academic success as a function of gender, class, age, study habits, and employment of college students’, Research in the Schools, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 71–81.
Lemay, D.J., Bazelais, P. and Doleck, T. (2021) ‘Transition to online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic’, Computers in Human Behavior Reports, Vol. 4, p. 100130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2021.100130
Li, G., Li, Y., Lam, A.I.F., Tang, W., Seedat, S., Barbui, C., Papola, D., Xie, J. and Zhu, T. (2023) ‘Understanding the protective effect of social support on depression symptomatology from a longitudinal network perspective’, BMJ Mental Health, Vol. 26, pp. 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjment-2023-300802
Lipson, S.K., Zhou, S., Abelson, S., Heinze, J., Jirsa, M., Morigney, J., Patterson, A., Eisenberg, D., and Auerbach, R.P. (2022) ‘Trends in college student mental health and help-seeking by race/ethnicity: Findings from the national healthy minds study, 2013–2021’, Journal of Affective Disorders, Vol. 306, pp. 138–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.038
Lucas, R. and Lammont, N. (1998) ‘Combining work and study: an empirical study of full‐time students’, Journal of Education and Work, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 41–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/1363908980110103
MacDonald, R. and Giazitzoglu, A. (2019) ‘Youth, enterprise and precarity: or, what is, and what is wrong with, the “gig economy”?’, Journal of Sociology, Vol. 55, No. 4, pp. 724–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/1440783319837604
Marks, S.R. and MacDermid, S.M. (1996) ‘Multiple Roles and the Self: A Theory of Role Balance’, Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 58, No. 2, p. 417. https://doi.org/10.2307/353506
Masui, C., Broeckmans, J., Doumen, S., Groenen, A. and Molenberghs, G. (2012) ‘Do diligent students perform better? Complex relations between student and course characteristics, study time, and academic performance in higher education’, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 621–643. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2012.721350
Mikolajczyk, R.T., Maxwell, A.E., El Ansari, W., Naydenova, V., Stock, C., Ilieva, S., Dudziak, U., and Gable, R. (2007) ‘Prevalence of depressive symptoms in university students from Germany, Denmark, Poland and Bulgaria’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 105–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0282-0
Miller, K., Danner, F. and Staten, R. (2008) ‘Relationship of work hours with selected health behaviors and academic progress among a college student cohort’, Journal of American College Health, Vol. 56, No. 6, pp. 675–679. https://doi.org/10.3200/JACH.56.6.675-679
Miller, R.L., Rycek, R.F. and Fritson, K. (2011) ‘The effects of high impact learning experiences on student engagement’, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 15, pp. 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.03.050
Missinne, S. and Bracke, P. (2012) ‘Depressive symptoms among immigrants and ethnic minorities: A population based study in 23 European countries’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 47, No. 1, pp. 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0321-0
Monk, E.M. (2004) ‘Student mental health. Part 2: The main study and reflection of significant issues’, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515070410001665749
Nicklin, J.M., Meachon, E.J. and McNall, L.A. (2019) ‘Balancing Work, School, and Personal Life among Graduate Students: a Positive Psychology Approach’, Applied Research in Quality of Life, Vol. 14, No. 5, pp. 1265–1286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-018-9650-z
Nunn, C., Germaine, C., Ogden, C., Miah, Y., Marsh, J., Kitching, R., Kathrada, N., and Warren, L. (2021) ‘Precarious hope: Situated perspectives on the COVID-19 pandemic from undergraduate students in Manchester, UK’, Journal of Applied Youth Studies, Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43151-021-00057-1
Ogawa, R., Seo, E., Maeno, T., Ito, M., Sanuki, M. and Maeno, T. (2018) ‘The relationship between long working hours and depression among first-year residents in Japan’, BMC Medical Education, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-018-1171-9
Paul, K.I. and Moser, K. (2009) ‘Unemployment impairs mental health: Meta-analyses’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 74, No. 3, pp. 264–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.01.001
Watts, C. and Pickering, A. (2000) ‘Pay as you learn: student employment and academic progress’, Education + Training, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp. 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400910010372670
Rickinson, B. (1998) ‘The Relationship between Undergraduate Student Counselling and Successful Degree Completion’, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079812331380522
Rosenthal, L., Carroll-Scott, A., Earnshaw, V.A., Santilli, A. and Ickovics, J.R. (2012) ‘The importance of full-time work for urban adults’ mental and physical health’, Social Science and Medicine, Vol. 75, No. 9, pp. 1692–1696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.07.003
Rückert, H.W. (2015) ‘Students’ mental health and psychological counselling in Europe’, Mental Health and Prevention, Elsevier, Vol. 3, No. 1–2, pp. 34–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2015.04.006
Salamonson, Y. and Andrew, S. (2006) ‘Academic performance in nursing students: Influence of part-time employment, age and ethnicity’, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 342–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2006.03863_1.x
Sieber, S.D. (1974) ‘Toward a Theory of Role Accumulation’, American Sociological Review, Vol. 39, No. 4, pp. 567–578. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094422
Stanley, N. and Manthorpe, J. (ed.) (2002) Students’ mental health needs: Problems and responses. New York: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Thoits, P.A. (1986) ‘Social support as coping assistance’, Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 54, No. 4, pp. 416–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.54.4.416
Toubasi, A.A., Hasuneh, M.M., Al Karmi, J.S., Haddad, T.A. and Kalbouneh, H.M. (2022) ‘Burnout among university students during distance learning period due to the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross sectional study at the University of Jordan’, International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, Vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 263–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/00912174221107780
Tratnik, A., Urh, M. and Jereb, E. (2017) ‘Student satisfaction with an online and a face-to-face Business English course in a higher education context’, Innovations in Education and Teaching International, Routledge, Vol. 56, No. 1, pp. 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2017.1374875
Trockel, M.T., Barnes, M.D. and Egget, D.L. (2000) ‘Health-related variables and academic performance among first-year college students: Implications for sleep and other behaviors’, Journal of the American College Health Association, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448480009596294
Van de Velde, S., Buffel, V., Bracke, P., Van Hal, G., Somogyi, N.M., Willems, B. and Wouters, E. (2021) ‘The COVID-19 International Student Well-being Study’, Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, Vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 114–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494820981186
Van de Velde, S., Levecque, K. and Bracke, P. (2009) ‘Measurement equivalence of the CES-D 8 in the general population in Belgium: A gender perspective’, Archives of Public Health, Vol. 67, No. 1, pp. 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1186/0778-7367-67-1-15
Velten, J., Bieda, A., Scholten, S., Wannemüller, A. and Margraf, J. (2018) ‘Lifestyle choices and mental health: A longitudinal survey with German and Chinese students’, BMC Public Health, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5526-2
Verger, P., Guagliardo, V., Gilbert, F., Rouillon, F. and Kovess-Masfety, V. (2010) ‘Psychiatric disorders in students in six French universities: 12-month prevalence, comorbidity, impairment and help-seeking’, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, Vol. 45, No. 2, pp. 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-009-0055-z
Volkwein, J.F. (1989) ‘Changes in Quality among Public Universities’, The Journal of Higher Education, Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 136–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1989.11775019
von Dem Knesebeck, O., Pattyn, E. and Bracke, P. (2011) ‘Education and depressive symptoms in 22 European countries’, International Journal of Public Health, Vol. 56, No. 1, pp. 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-010-0202-z
Weston, G., Zilanawala, A., Webb, E., Carvalho, L.A. and McMunn, A. (2019) ‘Long work hours, weekend working and depressive symptoms in men and women: Findings from a UK population-based study’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, Vol. 73, No. 5, pp. 465–474. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-211309
Winefield, A.H., Tiggemann, M. and Winefield, H.R. (1992) ‘Spare time use and psychological well‐being in employed and unemployed young people’, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 65, No. 4, pp. 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1992.tb00507.x
Wong, K., Chan, A.H.S. and Ngan, S.C. (2019) ‘The effect of long working hours and overtime on occupational health: A meta-analysis of evidence from 1998 to 2018’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 16, No. 12, pp. 13–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122102
Yao, H. and Chen, S. (2023) ‘Associations of Time Spent on Study and Sleep with Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms in Junior High School Students: Report from the Large-Scale Monitoring of Basic Education Data in China’, International Journal of Mental Health Promotion, Vol. 25, No. 9, pp. 1053–1065. https://doi.org/10.32604/ijmhp.2023.028844
Yoon, Y., Ryu, J., Kim, H., Kang, C. won and Jung-Choi, K. (2018) ‘Working hours and depressive symptoms: The role of job stress factors’, Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40557-018-0257-5
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Michaela Prokes, Jan Klusacek
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors declare with this manuscript intended for publication to ERIES Journal that:
- all co-authors agree with the publication of the manuscript even after amendments arising from peer review;
- all co-authors agree with the posting of the full text of this work on the web page of ERIES Journal and to the inclusion of references in databases accessible on the internet;
- no results of other researchers were used in the submitted manuscript without their consent, proper citation, or acknowledgement of their cooperation or material provided;
- the results (or any part of them) used in the manuscript have not been sent for publication to any other journal nor have they already been published (or if so, that the relevant works are cited in this manuscript);
- submission of the manuscript for publication was completed in accordance with the publishing regulations pertaining to place of work;
- experiments performed comply with current laws and written consent of the Scientific Ethics Committee / National Animal Care Authority (as is mentioned in the manuscript submitted);
- grant holders confirm that they have been informed of the submitted manuscript and they agree to its publication.
Authors retain copyright and grant ERIES Journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the published work with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in ERIES Journal. Moreover, authors are able to post the published work in an institutional repository with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in ERIES Journal. In addition, authors are permitted and encouraged to post the published work online (e.g. institutional repositories or on their website) as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
