Beyond A-Level Points
Evaluating their Relevance to Responsible and Efficient University Admissions in the Digital Era
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2026.190307Keywords:
Performance, Graduates, advanced level points, Degree class, loglinear modellingAbstract
In Zimbabwe, admission to university programmes is largely based on the number of points obtained at Advanced Level (A-Level). Because applicants come from schools with unequal access to educational resources, heavy reliance on examination scores may raise concerns about equity. This study examined structural associations among A-Level points, gender, faculty, and final degree classification using records from 1,512 graduates of five Zimbabwean public universities. A log-linear model was used to analyse these associations. The collapsed model [FA, FD] provided an adequate fit, indicating associations between faculty and A-Level points and between faculty and degree class, but no evidence of a direct association between A-Level points and degree class after accounting for faculty. In the four-variable model, gender was associated with faculty but not with A-Level points or degree class. Overall, the findings question the use of A-Level points as a general indicator of subsequent degree classification and suggest that any discipline-specific use of entry scores in admissions should be supported by further evidence.
References
Alam, A. (2022) ‘Psychological, sociocultural, and biological elucidations for gender gap in STEM education: A call for translation of research into evidence-based interventions’, in: Samanta, S. R. and Gochhayat, J. (eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Sustainability and Equity (ICSE-2021), Atlantis Highlights in Social Sciences, Education and Humanities, Vol. 2, Dordrecht: Atlantis Press, pp. 95–107. https://doi.org/10.2991/ahsseh.k.220105.012
Ali, M., Raza, S. A., Puah, C. H. and Qazi, W. (2024) ‘Micro-credential as a digital enabler for higher education ecosystems’, International Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp. 893–896. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-05-2024-655
Alfan, E. and Othman, N. (2005) ‘Undergraduate students’ performance: the case of University of Malaya’, Quality Assurance in Education, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 329–343. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684880510626593
Aravkin, A., Choromanska, A., Deng, L., Heigold, G., Jebara, T., Kanevsky, D. and Wright, S. J. (eds.) (2024) Log-Linear Models, Extensions, and Applications, Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Barra, C., Destefanis, S., Sena, V. and Zotti, R. (2024) ‘Students’ performance and faculty efficiency. Assessing the role of gender through a metafrontier’, Journal of Economic Studies, Vol. 51, No. 9, pp. 323–337. https://doi.org/10.1108/JES-01-2024-0037
Bautista, R., Morada, M. H. and Pineda, A. L. (2021) ‘A Comparative Study of the Academic Performance of STEM and Non-STEM Graduates in College and Advanced Algebra’, Southeast Asian Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 6, No. 2 (SI), pp. 114–122. Available at: https://sajournal.pti.edu.ph/index.php/sajst/article/view/257
Betts, L. R., Elder, T. J., Hartley, J. and Blurton, A. (2008) ‘Predicting university performance in Psychology: The role of previous performance and discipline specific knowledge’, Educational Studies, Vol. 34, No. 5, pp. 543–556. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690802288528
Blatt, L., Schunn, C. D., Votruba-Drzal, E. and Rottman, B. M. (2020) ‘Variation in which key motivational and academic resources relate to academic performance disparities across introductory college courses’, International Journal of STEM Education, Vol. 7, No. 1, p. 58. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00253-0
Boháčková, I. and Brožová, I. (2012) ‘Assessing Students´ Level of Knowledge in Profile Courses of Choosen Economic Study Programmes at the FEM CULS’, Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 148–156. https://dx.doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2012.050304
Costello, R. A., Salehi, S., Ballen, C. J. and Burkholder, E. (2023) ‘Pathways of opportunity in STEM: comparative investigation of degree attainment across different demographic groups at a large research institution’, International Journal of STEM Education, Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 46. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-023-00436-5
De las Cuevas, P., García-Arenas, M. and Rico, N. (2022) ‘Why not STEM? A study case on the influence of gender factors on students’ higher education choice’, Mathematics, Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 239. https://doi.org/10.3390/math10020239
Eshetu, A.A., Alemu, S., Mulat, A., Abdu, A., Gobezie, B., Muluken, E., Anagaw, A., Mulugeta, E., Hailemariam, E. and Aragaw, S. (2024) ‘Gender disparity in academic performance in higher education institutions: a case of Wollo University, Ethiopia’, Frontiers in Education, Vol. 9, p. 1476112. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1476112
Fox, J., Beattie, J., McGrail, J., Eley, D., Fuller, L., Hu, W., Keniry, C., Chennakesavan, S.K., Parker-Newlyn, L., Reid, K. and Walters, L. (2025) ‘Medical school admission processes to target rural applicants: an international scoping review and mapping of Australian practices’, BMC Medical Education, Vol. 25, No. 1, p. 659. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-07234-3
Hatfield, N., Brown, N. and Topaz, C. M. (2022) ‘Do introductory courses disproportionately drive minoritized students out of STEM pathways?’, PNAS nexus, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. pgac167. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac167
Hinojosa, M., Alfaro, M., Fuertes, G., Ternero, R., Santander, P. and Vargas, M. (2025) ‘Optimizing University Admission Processes for Improved Educational Administration Through Feature Selection Algorithms: A Case Study in Engineering Education’, Education Sciences, Vol. 15, No. 3, p. 326. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15030326
Iannelli, C., McMullin, P. and Smyth, E. (2025) ‘Higher education retention in Ireland and Scotland: The role of admissions policies’, Higher Education, Vol. 89, No. 4, pp. 1021–1039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01259-1
Ismail, N. A. and Othman, A. (2006) ‘Comparing University Academic Performances of HSC Students at the Three Art-Based Faculties’, International Education Journal, Vol. 7, No. 5, pp. 668–675. Available at: https://knova.um.edu.my/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1196&context=research_publications_2006_2010
Kanyongo, G. Y. (2005) ‘Zimbabwe’s Public Education System Reforms: Successes and Challenges’, International Education Journal, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 65–74. Available at: https://www.learntechlib.org/p/103477/
Kara, E., Tonin, M. and Vlassopoulos, M. (2021) ‘Class size effects in higher education: Differences across STEM and non-STEM fields’, Economics of Education Review, Vol. 82, p. 102104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102104
Kaspříková, N. (2012) ‘Data analysis of students’ performance’, in: Kvasnička, R. (ed.), Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education (ERIE 2012), Prague: Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, pp. 213–218.
Kipuru, M. M., Kibanja, G. M. and Matagi, L. (2024) ‘From A-level success to college achievement: the mediating effect of academic engagement on cumulative grade point average (CGPA) and persistence among undergraduate students at Makerere University’, African Journal of Empirical Research, Vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 1779–1797. https://doi.org/10.51867/ajernet.5.4.149
Kloos, C. D. , Alario-Hoyos, C., Kemcha, R., Moreno-Marcos, P. M., Estévez-Ayres, I., Callejo-Pinardo, P., Muñoz-Merino, P. J., Ibáñez, M.-B. and Muñoz-Organero, M. (2025) ‘How challenges become opportunities: Micro-credentials and artificial intelligence’, in: Proceedings of the 2025 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON), London, United Kingdom, 22–25 April 2025, pp. 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1109/EDUCON62633.2025.11016509
Klůfa J. (2015) ‘Comparison of The Ways of Acceptance Students at University’, Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 72–76. https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2015.080304
Koo, A., Wong, Y.L. and Cheung, K. (2025) ‘Access to top universities through alternative pathways: experiences of transfer students in Hong Kong’, Educational Review, pp. 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2025.2551021
Kučera, P., Svatošová, L. and Pelikán, M. (2015) ‘University study results as related to the admission exam results’, in: Flégl, M. and Houška, M. (eds.), Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education (ERIE 2015), Prague: Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, pp. 318–324.
Lee, J. A. (2025) ‘Adaptive merit framework: Merit-anchored fairness via SES correction’, arXiv, arXiv:2512.13698 [Preprint]. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5872762
Mahmud, M. M. and Wong, S. F. (2022) ‘Digital age: The importance of 21st century skills among the undergraduates’, Frontiers in Education, Vol. 7, p. 950553. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.950553
Matete, R. E. and Kombe, G. G. (2025) ‘Gender parity trends in STEM and non-STEM fields in Higher Education Institutions in Tanzania: A comparative analysis’, International Journal of Educational Development, Vol. 114, p. 103233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2025.103233
Matteucci, M. and Mignani, S. (2021) ‘Investigating gender differences in mathematics by performance levels in the Italian school system’, Studies in Educational Evaluation, Vol. 70, p. 101022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.101022
Mensah, R. O., Amponsah, K. D., Adiza Babah, P. and Jibril, H. S. (2024) ‘Factors affecting students’ academic performance and teachers’ efficiency in Ghana; a case study of Wa senior high school’, Cogent Arts & Humanities, Vol. 11, No. 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2024.2412944
Merchant, A. A. H., Afzal, N., Rahim, K.A., Shah, S. A., Jamal, W. Z., Rahim, A., Bakhshi, S. K., Shaikh, N. Q., Noorali, A.A., Mahmood, S. B. Z. and Akbarali, L. (2025) ‘Application to achievement: association between pre-admission factors, admission scores, and medical students’ performance’, BMC Medical Education, Vol. 25, No. 1, p. 223. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-025-06800-z
Mwembe, D., Zulu, I. L. and Mdlongwa, P. (2022) ‘Needs Assessment for Facilitators in Teaching of STEM Subjects in UnderResourced Rural Schools: Case of Lupane and Hwange Districts in Zimbabwe’, International Journal of Professional Development, Learners and Learning, Vol. 4, No. 1, p. ep2202. https://doi.org/10.30935/ijpdll/11666
Newsome, M. L., Pina, A. A., Mollazehi, M., Al-Ali, K. and Al-Shaboul, Y. (2022) ‘The Effect of Gender and STEM/Non-STEM Disciplines on Remote Learning: A National Study of Undergraduates in Qatar’, Electronic Journal of e-Learning, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 360–373. Available at: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1352417.pdf
Otavová M., and Sýkorová I. (2016) ‘Differences in Results Obtained by Students of Different Faculties’, Journal on Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2016.090101
Petersen, N., Ruegg, R. and Hoang, H. (2024) ‘Admissions pathways and international undergraduates’ academic achievement’, Educational Research, Vol. 66, No. 4, pp. 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2024.2409647
Owston, R., York, D. N., Malhotra, T. and Sitthiworachart, J. (2020) ‘Blended learning in STEM and non-STEM courses: How do student performance and perceptions compare?’, Online Learning, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 203–221. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v24i3.2151
Rajendran, S., Chamundeswari, S. and Sinha, A. A. (2022) ‘Predicting the academic performance of middle- and high-school students using machine learning algorithms’, Social Sciences & Humanities Open, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 100357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2022.100357
Ram, I., Shwartz, A. and Roll, I. (2025) ‘Minding the gender gap in advanced STEM courses: effects of student preparedness and activity level’, Instructional Science, Vol. 53, No. 6, pp.1457–1478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-025-09748-1
Rowbottom, N. (2013) ‘A-level subject choice, systematic bias and university performance in the UK: The case of accounting’, Accounting Education, Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 248–267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09639284.2013.799840
Thiele, T., Singleton, A., Pope, D. and Stanistreet, D. (2014) ‘Predicting students’ academic performance based on school and sociodemographic characteristics’, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 41, No. 8, pp. 1424–1446. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2014.974528
Tandrayen-Ragoobur, V. and Gokulsing, D. (2022) ‘Gender gap in STEM education and career choices: what matters? ’, Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 1021–1040. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-09-2019-0235
Tomaszewski, W., Xiang, N. and Kubler, M. (2025) ‘Socio-economic status, school performance, and university participation: evidence from linked administrative and survey data from Australia’, Higher education, Vol. 89, No. 3, pp. 753–774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01245-7
Wang, W., Han, L., Lu, Q., Lv, X., Liu, Y. and Wang, D. (2024) ‘Research on the impact of the socio-educational environment on the academic performance of college students: the mediating role of study motivation’, Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 14, p. 1289064. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1289064
Wrigley-Asante, C., Ackah, C.G. and Frimpong, L.K (2023) ‘Gender differences in academic performance of students studying Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) subjects at the University of Ghana’, SN Social Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-023-00608-8
Zeng, J. W. and Shen, J. (2026) ‘Quantifying holistic review: A multimodal approach to college admissions prediction’, in: Tiwari, S. and Shi, Z. (eds.), International Conference on Image, Signal Processing, and Machine Learning (ISPML 2025), Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 14058, Bellingham, WA: SPIE, pp. 99–113.
Additional Files
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Desmond Mwembe, Brighton Mpofu, Nicholas J Sibanda, Aaron Nyoni
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors declare with this manuscript intended for publication to ERIES Journal that:
- all co-authors agree with the publication of the manuscript even after amendments arising from peer review;
- all co-authors agree with the posting of the full text of this work on the web page of ERIES Journal and to the inclusion of references in databases accessible on the internet;
- no results of other researchers were used in the submitted manuscript without their consent, proper citation, or acknowledgement of their cooperation or material provided;
- the results (or any part of them) used in the manuscript have not been sent for publication to any other journal nor have they already been published (or if so, that the relevant works are cited in this manuscript);
- submission of the manuscript for publication was completed in accordance with the publishing regulations pertaining to place of work;
- experiments performed comply with current laws and written consent of the Scientific Ethics Committee / National Animal Care Authority (as is mentioned in the manuscript submitted);
- grant holders confirm that they have been informed of the submitted manuscript and they agree to its publication.
Authors retain copyright and grant ERIES Journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the published work with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in ERIES Journal. Moreover, authors are able to post the published work in an institutional repository with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in ERIES Journal. In addition, authors are permitted and encouraged to post the published work online (e.g. institutional repositories or on their website) as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
